CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) eliminate virally infected cells through directed secretion of specialized lytic granules. Because a single CTL can kill multiple targets, degranulation must be tightly regulated. However, how CTLs regulate the termination of granule secretion remains unclear. Previous work demonstrated that centralized actin reduction at the immune synapse precedes degranulation. Using a combination of live confocal, total internal reflection fluorescence, and superresolution microscopy, we now show that, after granule fusion, actin recovers at the synapse and no further secretion is observed. Depolymerization of actin led to resumed granule secretion, suggesting that recovered actin acts as a barrier preventing sustained degranulation. Furthermore, RAB27a-deficient CTLs, which do not secrete cytotoxic granules, failed to recover actin at the synapse, suggesting that RAB27a-mediated granule secretion is required for actin recovery. Finally, we show that both actin clearance and recovery correlated with synaptic phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) and that alterations in PIP2 at the immunological synapse regulate cortical actin in CTLs, providing a potential mechanism through which CTLs control cortical actin density. Our work provides insight into actin-related mechanisms regulating CTL secretion that may facilitate serial killing during immune responses.

Optical and electron microscopy have made tremendous inroads toward understanding the complexity of the brain. However, optical microscopy offers insufficient resolution to reveal subcellular details, and electron microscopy lacks the throughput and molecular contrast to visualize specific molecular constituents over millimeter-scale or larger dimensions. We combined expansion microscopy and lattice light-sheet microscopy to image the nanoscale spatial relationships between proteins across the thickness of the mouse cortex or the entire Drosophila brain. These included synaptic proteins at dendritic spines, myelination along axons, and presynaptic densities at dopaminergic neurons in every fly brain region. The technology should enable statistically rich, large-scale studies of neural development, sexual dimorphism, degree of stereotypy, and structural correlations to behavior or neural activity, all with molecular contrast.

The motor cortex controls skilled arm movement by sending temporal patterns of activity to lower motor centres. Local cortical dynamics are thought to shape these patterns throughout movement execution. External inputs have been implicated in setting the initial state of the motor cortex, but they may also have a pattern-generating role. Here we dissect the contribution of local dynamics and inputs to cortical pattern generation during a prehension task in mice. Perturbing cortex to an aberrant state prevented movement initiation, but after the perturbation was released, cortex either bypassed the normal initial state and immediately generated the pattern that controls reaching or failed to generate this pattern. The difference in these two outcomes was probably a result of external inputs. We directly investigated the role of inputs by inactivating the thalamus; this perturbed cortical activity and disrupted limb kinematics at any stage of the movement. Activation of thalamocortical axon terminals at different frequencies disrupted cortical activity and arm movement in a graded manner. Simultaneous recordings revealed that both thalamic activity and the current state of cortex predicted changes in cortical activity. Thus, the pattern generator for dexterous arm movement is distributed across multiple, strongly interacting brain regions.

In the mouse, each class of olfactory receptor neurons expressing a given odorant receptor has convergent axonal projections to two specific glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, thereby creating an odour map. However, it is unclear how this map is represented in the olfactory cortex. Here we combine rabies-virus-dependent retrograde mono-trans-synaptic labelling with genetics to control the location, number and type of ’starter’ cortical neurons, from which we trace their presynaptic neurons. We find that individual cortical neurons receive input from multiple mitral cells representing broadly distributed glomeruli. Different cortical areas represent the olfactory bulb input differently. For example, the cortical amygdala preferentially receives dorsal olfactory bulb input, whereas the piriform cortex samples the whole olfactory bulb without obvious bias. These differences probably reflect different functions of these cortical areas in mediating innate odour preference or associative memory. The trans-synaptic labelling method described here should be widely applicable to mapping connections throughout the mouse nervous system.

Current thinking about long-term memory in the cortex is focused on changes in the strengths of connections between neurons. But ongoing structural plasticity in the adult brain, including synapse formation/elimination and remodelling of axons and dendrites, suggests that memory could also depend on learning-induced changes in the cortical 'wiring diagram'. Given that the cortex is sparsely connected, wiring plasticity could provide a substantial boost in storage capacity, although at a cost of more elaborate biological machinery and slower learning.

Retinoic Acid-Related Orphan Receptor Beta (RORβ) is a transcription factor (TF) and marker of layer 4 (L4) neurons, which are distinctive both in transcriptional identity and the ability to form aggregates such as barrels in rodent somatosensory cortex. However, the relationship between transcriptional identity and L4 cytoarchitecture is largely unknown. We find RORβ is required in the cortex for L4 aggregation into barrels and thalamocortical afferent (TCA) segregation. Interestingly, barrel organization also degrades with age in wildtype mice. Loss of RORβ delays excitatory input and disrupts gene expression and chromatin accessibility, with down-regulation of L4 and up-regulation of L5 genes, suggesting a disruption in cellular specification. Expression and binding site accessibility change for many other TFs, including closure of neurodevelopmental TF binding sites and increased expression and binding capacity of activity-regulated TFs. Lastly, a putative target of RORβ, , is down-regulated without RORβ, and knock-out alone disrupts TCA organization in adult barrels.

Aberrant mRNAs with premature translation termination codons (PTCs) are recognized and eliminated by the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) pathway in eukaryotes. We employed a novel live-cell imaging approach to investigate the kinetics of mRNA synthesis and release at the transcription site of PTC-containing (PTC+) and PTC-free (PTC-) immunoglobulin-μ reporter genes. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) and photoconversion analyses revealed that PTC+ transcripts are specifically retained at the transcription site. Remarkably, the retained PTC+ transcripts are mainly unspliced, and this RNA retention is dependent upon two important NMD factors, UPF1 and SMG6, since their depletion led to the release of the PTC+ transcripts. Finally, ChIP analysis showed a physical association of UPF1 and SMG6 with both the PTC+ and the PTC- reporter genes in vivo. Collectively, our data support a mechanism for regulation of PTC+ transcripts at the transcription site.

Single-molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) uses activatable or switchable fluorophores to create non-diffraction limited maps of molecular location in biological samples. Despite the utility of this imaging technique, the portfolio of appropriate labels for SMLM remains limited. Here, we describe a general strategy for the construction of “glitter bomb” labels by simply combining rhodamine and coumarin dyes though an amide bond. Condensation of the ortho-carboxyl group on the pendant phenyl ring of rhodamine dyes with a 7-aminocoumarin yields photochromic or spontaneously blinking fluorophores depending on the parent rhodamine structure. We apply this strategy to prepare labels useful super-resolution experiments in fixed cells using different attachment techniques. This general glitter bomb strategy should lead to improved labels for SMLM, ultimately enabling the creation of detailed molecular maps in biological samples.

The courtship song of Drosophila melanogaster has long served as excellent model system for studies of animal communication and differences in courtship song have been demonstrated among populations and between species. Here, we report that flies of African and European origin, which diverged approximately 13,000 years ago, show significant genetic differentiation in the use of slow versus fast pulse song. Using a combination of quantitative trait mapping and population genetic analysis we detected a single strong QTL underlying this trait and we identified candidate genes that may contribute to the evolution of this trait. Song trait variation between parental strains of our recombinant inbred panel enabled detection of genomic intervals associated with six additional song traits, some of which include known courtship-related genes. These findings improve the prospects for further genetic insights into the evolution of reproductive behavior and the biology underlying courtship song.

A line of dopamine-deficient (DD) mice was generated to allow selective restoration of normal dopamine signaling to specific brain regions. These DD floxed stop (DDfs) mice have a nonfunctional Tyrosine hydroxylase (Th) gene because of insertion of a NeoR gene flanked by lox P sites targeted to the first intron of the Th gene. DDfs mice have trace brain dopamine content, severe hypoactivity, and aphagia, and they die without intervention. However, they can be maintained by daily treatment with l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-dopa). Injection of a canine adenovirus (CAV-2) engineered to express Cre recombinase into the central caudate putamen restores normal Th gene expression to the midbrain dopamine neurons that project there because CAV-2 efficiently transduces axon terminals and is retrogradely transported to neuronal cell bodies. Bilateral injection of Cre recombinase into the central caudate putamen restores feeding and normalizes locomotion in DDfs mice. Analysis of feeding behavior by using lickometer cages revealed that virally rescued DDfs mice are hyperphagic and have modified meal structures compared with control mice. The virally rescued DDfs mice are also hyperactive at night, have reduced motor coordination, and are thigmotactic compared with controls. These results highlight the critical role for dopamine signaling in the dorsal striatum for most dopamine-dependent behaviors but suggest that dopamine signaling in other brain regions is important to fine-tune these behaviors. This approach offers numerous advantages compared with previous models aimed at examining dopamine signaling in discrete dopaminergic circuits.