The histone variant H2A.Z is a universal mark of gene promoters, enhancers, and regulatory elements in eukaryotic chromatin. The chromatin remodeler SWR1 mediates site-specific incorporation of H2A.Z by a multi-step histone replacement reaction, evicting histone H2A-H2B from the canonical nucleosome and depositing the H2A.Z-H2B dimer. Binding of both substrates, the canonical nucleosome and the H2A.Z-H2B dimer, is essential for activation of SWR1. We found that SWR1 primarily recognizes key residues within the α2 helix in the histone-fold of nucleosomal histone H2A, a region not previously known to influence remodeler activity. Moreover, SWR1 interacts preferentially with nucleosomal DNA at superhelix location 2 on the nucleosome face distal to its linker-binding site. Our findings provide new molecular insights on recognition of the canonical nucleosome by a chromatin remodeler and have implications for ATP-driven mechanisms of histone eviction and deposition.

Habituation is a fundamental form of behavioral plasticity that permits organisms to ignore inconsequential stimuli. Here we describe the habituation of a locomotor response to ethanol and other odorants in Drosophila, measured by an automated high-throughput locomotor tracking system. Flies exhibit an immediate and transient startle response upon exposure to a novel odor. Surgical removal of the antennae, the fly's major olfactory organs, abolishes this startle response. With repeated discrete exposures to ethanol vapor, the startle response habituates. Habituation is reversible by a mechanical stimulus and is not due to the accumulation of ethanol in the organism, nor to non-specific mechanisms. Ablation or inactivation of the mushroom bodies, central brain structures involved in olfactory and courtship conditioning, results in decreased olfactory habituation. In addition, olfactory habituation to ethanol generalizes to odorants that activate separate olfactory receptors. Finally, habituation is impaired in rutabaga, an adenylyl cyclase mutant isolated based on a defect in olfactory associative learning. These data demonstrate that olfactory habituation operates, at least in part, through central mechanisms. This novel model of olfactory habituation in freely moving Drosophila provides a scalable method for studying the molecular and neural bases of this simple and ubiquitous form of learning.

Animals can discriminate myriad sensory stimuli but can also generalize from learned experience. You can probably distinguish the favorite teas of your colleagues while still recognizing that all tea pales in comparison to coffee. Tradeoffs between detection, discrimination, and generalization are inherent at every layer of sensory processing. During development, specific quantitative parameters are wired into perceptual circuits and set the playing field on which plasticity mechanisms play out. A primary goal of systems neuroscience is to understand how material properties of a circuit define the logical operations— computations--that it makes, and what good these computations are for survival. A cardinal method in biology—and the mechanism of evolution--is to change a unit or variable within a system and ask how this affects organismal function. Here, we make use of our knowledge of developmental wiring mechanisms to modify hard-wired circuit parameters in the Drosophila melanogaster mushroom body and assess the functional and behavioral consequences. By altering the number of expansion layer neurons (Kenyon cells) and their dendritic complexity, we find that input number, but not cell number, tunes odor selectivity. Simple odor discrimination performance is maintained when Kenyon cell number is reduced and augmented by Kenyon cell expansion.

Secretion systems require high-fidelity mechanisms to discriminate substrates among the vast cytoplasmic pool of proteins. Factors mediating substrate recognition by the type VI secretion system (T6SS) of Gram-negative bacteria, a widespread pathway that translocates effector proteins into target bacterial cells, have not been defined. We report that haemolysin coregulated protein (Hcp), a ring-shaped hexamer secreted by all characterized T6SSs, binds specifically to cognate effector molecules. Electron microscopy analysis of an Hcp-effector complex from Pseudomonas aeruginosa revealed the effector bound to the inner surface of Hcp. Further studies demonstrated that interaction with the Hcp pore is a general requirement for secretion of diverse effectors encompassing several enzymatic classes. Though previous models depict Hcp as a static conduit, our data indicate it is a chaperone and receptor of substrates. These unique functions of a secreted protein highlight fundamental differences between the export mechanism of T6 and other characterized secretory pathways.

Both Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum malaria can cause the delivery of low birthweight babies. In this report, we have quantitated haemozoin levels in placentas from women living on the Thai-Burmese border in a region of low transmission for both P. falciparum and P. vivax malaria from June 1995 to January 2000. P. falciparum malaria infections during pregnancy lead to the accumulation of haemozoin (malaria pigment) in the placenta, especially in infections near term and in primigravid pregnancies. Haemozoin concentration was not associated with adverse birth outcomes. Women with P. vivax infections during pregnancy do not have measurable levels of placental haemozoin suggesting that P. vivax-infected erythrocytes do not accumulate in the placenta as much as P. falciparum-infected ones.

Microtubule stabilizing agents (MSAs) comprise a class of drugs that bind to microtubule (MT) polymers and stabilize them against disassembly. Several of these agents are currently in clinical use as anticancer drugs, whereas others are in various stages of development. Nonetheless, there is insufficient knowledge about the molecular modes of their action. Recent studies from our laboratory utilizing hydrogen-deuterium exchange in combination with mass spectrometry (MS) provide new information on the conformational effects of Taxol and discodermolide on microtubules isolated from chicken erythrocytes (CET). We report here a comprehensive analysis of the effects of epothilone B, ixabepilone (IXEMPRA(TM)), laulimalide, and peloruside A on CET conformation. The results of our comparative hydrogen-deuterium exchange MS studies indicate that all MSAs have significant conformational effects on the C-terminal H12 helix of α-tubulin, which is a likely molecular mechanism for the previously observed modulations of MT interactions with microtubule-associated and motor proteins. More importantly, the major mode of MT stabilization by MSAs is the tightening of the longitudinal interactions between two adjacent αβ-tubulin heterodimers at the interdimer interface. In contrast to previous observations reported with bovine brain tubulin, the lateral interactions between the adjacent protofilaments in CET are particularly strongly stabilized by peloruside A and laulimalide, drugs that bind outside the taxane site. This not only highlights the significance of tubulin isotype composition in modulating drug effects on MT conformation and stability but also provides a potential explanation for the synergy observed when combinations of taxane and alternative site binding drugs are used.

Haploid larvae in non-mammalian vertebrates are lethal, with characteristic organ growth retardation collectively called 'haploid syndrome'. In contrast to mammals, whose haploid intolerance is attributed to imprinting misregulation, the cellular principle of haploidy-linked defects in non-mammalian vertebrates remains unknown. Here, we investigated cellular defects that disrupt the ontogeny of gynogenetic haploid zebrafish larvae. Unlike diploid control larvae, haploid larvae manifested unscheduled cell death at the organogenesis stage, attributed to haploidy-linked p53 upregulation. Moreover, we found that haploid larvae specifically suffered the gradual aggravation of mitotic spindle monopolarization during 1-3 days post-fertilization, causing spindle assembly checkpoint-mediated mitotic arrest throughout the entire body. High-resolution imaging revealed that this mitotic defect accompanied the haploidy-linked centrosome loss occurring concomitantly with the gradual decrease in larval cell size. Either resolution of mitotic arrest or depletion of p53 partially improved organ growth in haploid larvae. Based on these results, we propose that haploidy-linked mitotic defects and cell death are parts of critical cellular causes shared among vertebrates that limit the larval growth in the haploid state, contributing to an evolutionary constraint on allowable ploidy status in the vertebrate life cycle.

Tumorigenesis requires sequential accumulation of multiple genetic lesions. In the prostate, tumor initiation is often linked to loss of heterozygosity at the Nkx3.1 locus. In mice, loss of even one Nkx3.1 allele causes prostatic epithelial hyperplasia and eventual prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) formation. Here we demonstrate that Nkx3.1 allelic loss extends the proliferative stage of regenerating luminal cells, leading to epithelial hyperplasia. Microarray analysis identified Nkx3.1 target genes, many of which show exquisite dosage sensitivity. The number of Nkx3.1 alleles determines the relative probabilities of stochastic activation or inactivation of a given target gene. Thus, loss of a single Nkx3.1 allele likely results in hyperplasia and PIN by increasing the probability of completely inactivating select Nkx3.1-regulated pathways within a subset of affected cells.

The consequences of alcohol use disorders (AUDs) are devastating to individuals and society, yet few treatments are currently available. To identify genes regulating the behavioral effects of ethanol, we conducted a genetic screen in Drosophila and identified a mutant, happyhour (hppy), due to its increased resistance to the sedative effects of ethanol. Hppy protein shows strong homology to mammalian Ste20 family kinases of the GCK-1 subfamily. Genetic and biochemical experiments revealed that the epidermal growth factor (EGF)-signaling pathway regulates ethanol sensitivity in Drosophila and that Hppy functions as an inhibitor of the pathway. Acute pharmacological inhibition of the EGF receptor (EGFR) in adult animals altered acute ethanol sensitivity in both flies and mice and reduced ethanol consumption in a preclinical rat model of alcoholism. Inhibitors of the EGFR or components of its signaling pathway are thus potential pharmacotherapies for AUDs.

HCN1 hyperpolarization-activated cation channels act as an inhibitory constraint of both spatial learning and synaptic integration and long-term plasticity in the distal dendrites of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. However, as HCN1 channels provide an excitatory current, the mechanism of their inhibitory action remains unclear. Here we report that HCN1 channels also constrain CA1 distal dendritic Ca2+ spikes, which have been implicated in the induction of LTP at distal excitatory synapses. Our experimental and computational results indicate that HCN1 channels provide both an active shunt conductance that decreases the temporal integration of distal EPSPs and a tonic depolarizing current that increases resting inactivation of T-type and N-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, which contribute to the Ca2+ spikes. This dual mechanism may provide a general means by which HCN channels regulate dendritic excitability.